Virtue Theory & Confucian Ethics
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Abstract - Ethics 2033 - Assignment
In this unit we have looked at the ethical perspective of two philosophers from the ancient world – Aristotle of ancient Greece and Kongzi (Confucius) of ancient China. We have also considered ethical issues related to the prevalence of rape in American culture and the destruction of natural environments. While the ancient philosophies of Aristotle and Kongzi may seem far removed from the ethical issues we face in the present day, their classical viewpoints present timeless wisdom that may prove helpful for thinking about what it means to be a virtuous person today. |
Virtue Theory is an approach to Ethics that emphasizes an individual’s character as the key element of ethical thinking, rather than rules about the acts themselves as in Deontology or their consequences as in Consequentialism.
Eudaimonism is the classical formulation of virtue ethics. It holds that the proper goal of human life is eudaimonia. Eudaimonia can be defined as “happiness”, “well-being”, “good life”, or the “human flourishing”. The virtue theory states that this goal can be achieved by a lifetime of practicing “arête” (the human excellence/virtues) in one’s everyday activities. The theory emphasizes the exercise of “phronesis”, practical wisdom, to resolve any conflicts or dilemmas that might arise. According to Rosalind Hursthouse’s article “Virtue Theory”, Nicomachean Ethics do not open with a discussion of the nature of the chief or highest good for man sic; namely eudaimonia. But it immediately becomes clear that the purpose of this is not at all to identify the good which right action can be defined as maximizing. Rather, eudaimonia or the “good life” is what each of us is seeking. This does not look as though it has anything to do with ethics, as we understand it, at all. But the answer Aristotle gives brings us back to more familiar terrain. “Eudaimonia” is activity of the soul in accordance with arête (virtue), so the eudaimonia (happy) life is the life of virtue. The good life that all seek turns out be what we would nowadays call “the morally good life.” [60]
Better known in China as Kongzi, one of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed more indirectly, through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology. His teachings require examination and context in order to be understood.
In many ways, Aristotle’s and Confucius’s teachings intersect significantly. According to Aristotle, a virtue is a habit or quality that allows individuals to succeed at their purpose. Therefore, Virtue Ethics is only intelligible if it is teleological; it includes an account of the purpose or meaning of human life. Aristotle, with whom Virtue Ethics is largely identified, categorized the virtues as moral virtues (including prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance) and intellectual virtues (including "Sophia" or theoretical wisdom, and "phronesis" or practical wisdom). Aristotle further argued that each of the moral virtues was a golden mean, or desirable middle ground, between two undesirable extremes. For an example, the virtue of courage is a mean between the two vices of cowardice and foolhardiness.
Confucius' social philosophy largely revolves around the concept of ren, “compassion” or “loving others.” Cultivating or practicing such concern for others involved deprecating oneself. This meant being sure to avoid artful speech or an ingratiating manner that would create a false impression and lead to self-aggrandizement. Those who have cultivated “ren” are, on the contrary, “simple in manner and slow of speech”. For Confucius, such concern for others is demonstrated through the practice of forms of the Golden Rule: “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others;” “Since you yourself desire standing then help others achieve it, since you yourself desire success then help others attain it”. He regards devotion to parents and older siblings as the most basic form of promoting the interests of others before one's own.
According to Aristotle, virtue is an active condition of the soul. We become virtuous by doing things that are virtuous. Virtues come from conscious intentions, not emotions or predispositions. We cannot control our emotions, but we can control how we express them. Therefore, virtues are active conditions, active states of souls. This brings us to the Tripartite Soul: Human (Rational Intellect, Self-reflection), Animal (Self-moving, perceptive, conscious), and Plant (Nutritive, Reproductive). These teachings, when combined with the Kongzi’s teachings “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others”, provides us strong basis to address the ethical issues we encounter today. Let us consider the issues, the prevalence of rape in American Culture, and the destruction of natural environments.
In feminist theory, rape culture is a setting in which rape is pervasive and normalized due to societal attitudes about gender and sexuality. Behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by some forms of sexual violence, or some combination of these. The notion of rape culture has been used to describe and explain behavior within social groups, including prison rape, rape within the military, and in conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. According to Larry May and Robert Strikwerda, in their article, “Men in Groups: Collective Responsibility for Rape”, most men do very little at all to oppose rape in their societies. And also raises the question, does this makes them something like co-conspirators with the men who rape? [422] According to Kongzi’s philosophy, this can be true to some extent, because we all have the responsibility toward others in our society. We all have a responsibility openly reject anything that portrays rape, such as music, commercial merchandise, and movies, etc.
If we take the view of Aristotle, and his virtue theory, it talks about the Tripartite Souls. When we apply the aspects of it toward the rape culture, it is strictly our responsibility to control our animalistic part of our soul so we know how to control ourselves in expressing our emotions. The most practical way of achieving this higher state of self-control is through practicing virtues.
There are aspects of both philosophies that we can apply toward the issue of the destruction of natural environments. This issue includes global warming (and the subsequent issue of climate change), and the environmental degradation. It is the deterioration of the environment through depletion and pollution of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. The issue of climate change has come to a point that we ought to take action now, or it is too late. Yet it is so disappointing to note that the public acknowledgement of this issue is rather a fact of neglect and ignorance. According to Al Gore, in his article, “Climate of Denial”, to sell their false narrative, the Polluters, Politicians, and Ideologues have found it essential to undermine the public’s respect for science and reason by attacking the integrity of the climate scientists. That is why the scientists are regularly accused of falsifying evidence and exaggerating its implications in a greedy effort to win more research grants, or secretly pursuing a hidden political agenda to expand the power of government. Such slanderous insults are deeply ironic: extremist ideologues – many financed or employed by carbon polluters – accusing scientists of being greedy extremist ideologies. [103] This is the reality we are facing today regarding the issues of Global Warming and Climate Change. We listen to the news and politicians to sharpen our knowledge about these issues.
In order to practically understand the issue of destruction of the environments, we ought to cultivate self-awareness for things that happen around us on a day-to-day basis. This directly relates to cultivating virtue as the virtue theory states. We ought to be aware of our actions and their subsequent results when we alter the natural environment. The only way to understand it is through practical wisdom, and according to the theory of virtue, as well as the teachings of Kongzi, we attain wisdom through knowledge. According to Thomas E. Hill, Jr, in his article, “Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments”, those who value the environment only for its utility must not really love the nature and so in this way fall short of an ideal. But such an answer is hardly satisfying in the present context, for what an issue is why we feel moral discomfort at the activities of those who admittedly value nature only for its utility [613]. I defend the view of Hill; we should not just value the environment for the benefits it provides us. Instead we should treat it as our lives depend on it, and without it, we will perish.
A virtuous person will recognize the threat of environmental pollution, global warming, and climate change, and would stand in support of preventing these human operations. Both Aristotle’s and Kongzi’s philosophies provide tools to guide us along in doing so. In reacting to the issues of global warming and climate change, we do not necessarily have to take stances of it saying we believe it, or we do not believe it’s happening. According to “The Analects”, of Kongzi (Confucius), Chapter 1, the master stated, do not be concerned that you lack an official position about something, but rather concern yourself with the means by which you might become established. Do not be concerned that no one has heard of you, but rather strive to become a person worthy of being known [12]. This is a wise statement that teaches us how to be self-educated in dealing with these issues.
In conclusion, I strongly think both philosophies of Aristotle and Kongzi (Confucius), has practical implications of addressing numerous issues in society we encounter today. The key feature about both philosophies is that they intersect in many ways that address the moral character of a human being with the primary goal of producing a virtuous human being that possess practical wisdom. Both philosophies have the tools to guide a person through whom he/she can develop the necessary virtues by practicing them to attain wisdom, and ultimately achieve eudaimonia, the human flourishing.
Eudaimonism is the classical formulation of virtue ethics. It holds that the proper goal of human life is eudaimonia. Eudaimonia can be defined as “happiness”, “well-being”, “good life”, or the “human flourishing”. The virtue theory states that this goal can be achieved by a lifetime of practicing “arête” (the human excellence/virtues) in one’s everyday activities. The theory emphasizes the exercise of “phronesis”, practical wisdom, to resolve any conflicts or dilemmas that might arise. According to Rosalind Hursthouse’s article “Virtue Theory”, Nicomachean Ethics do not open with a discussion of the nature of the chief or highest good for man sic; namely eudaimonia. But it immediately becomes clear that the purpose of this is not at all to identify the good which right action can be defined as maximizing. Rather, eudaimonia or the “good life” is what each of us is seeking. This does not look as though it has anything to do with ethics, as we understand it, at all. But the answer Aristotle gives brings us back to more familiar terrain. “Eudaimonia” is activity of the soul in accordance with arête (virtue), so the eudaimonia (happy) life is the life of virtue. The good life that all seek turns out be what we would nowadays call “the morally good life.” [60]
Better known in China as Kongzi, one of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed more indirectly, through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology. His teachings require examination and context in order to be understood.
In many ways, Aristotle’s and Confucius’s teachings intersect significantly. According to Aristotle, a virtue is a habit or quality that allows individuals to succeed at their purpose. Therefore, Virtue Ethics is only intelligible if it is teleological; it includes an account of the purpose or meaning of human life. Aristotle, with whom Virtue Ethics is largely identified, categorized the virtues as moral virtues (including prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance) and intellectual virtues (including "Sophia" or theoretical wisdom, and "phronesis" or practical wisdom). Aristotle further argued that each of the moral virtues was a golden mean, or desirable middle ground, between two undesirable extremes. For an example, the virtue of courage is a mean between the two vices of cowardice and foolhardiness.
Confucius' social philosophy largely revolves around the concept of ren, “compassion” or “loving others.” Cultivating or practicing such concern for others involved deprecating oneself. This meant being sure to avoid artful speech or an ingratiating manner that would create a false impression and lead to self-aggrandizement. Those who have cultivated “ren” are, on the contrary, “simple in manner and slow of speech”. For Confucius, such concern for others is demonstrated through the practice of forms of the Golden Rule: “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others;” “Since you yourself desire standing then help others achieve it, since you yourself desire success then help others attain it”. He regards devotion to parents and older siblings as the most basic form of promoting the interests of others before one's own.
According to Aristotle, virtue is an active condition of the soul. We become virtuous by doing things that are virtuous. Virtues come from conscious intentions, not emotions or predispositions. We cannot control our emotions, but we can control how we express them. Therefore, virtues are active conditions, active states of souls. This brings us to the Tripartite Soul: Human (Rational Intellect, Self-reflection), Animal (Self-moving, perceptive, conscious), and Plant (Nutritive, Reproductive). These teachings, when combined with the Kongzi’s teachings “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others”, provides us strong basis to address the ethical issues we encounter today. Let us consider the issues, the prevalence of rape in American Culture, and the destruction of natural environments.
In feminist theory, rape culture is a setting in which rape is pervasive and normalized due to societal attitudes about gender and sexuality. Behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by some forms of sexual violence, or some combination of these. The notion of rape culture has been used to describe and explain behavior within social groups, including prison rape, rape within the military, and in conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. According to Larry May and Robert Strikwerda, in their article, “Men in Groups: Collective Responsibility for Rape”, most men do very little at all to oppose rape in their societies. And also raises the question, does this makes them something like co-conspirators with the men who rape? [422] According to Kongzi’s philosophy, this can be true to some extent, because we all have the responsibility toward others in our society. We all have a responsibility openly reject anything that portrays rape, such as music, commercial merchandise, and movies, etc.
If we take the view of Aristotle, and his virtue theory, it talks about the Tripartite Souls. When we apply the aspects of it toward the rape culture, it is strictly our responsibility to control our animalistic part of our soul so we know how to control ourselves in expressing our emotions. The most practical way of achieving this higher state of self-control is through practicing virtues.
There are aspects of both philosophies that we can apply toward the issue of the destruction of natural environments. This issue includes global warming (and the subsequent issue of climate change), and the environmental degradation. It is the deterioration of the environment through depletion and pollution of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. The issue of climate change has come to a point that we ought to take action now, or it is too late. Yet it is so disappointing to note that the public acknowledgement of this issue is rather a fact of neglect and ignorance. According to Al Gore, in his article, “Climate of Denial”, to sell their false narrative, the Polluters, Politicians, and Ideologues have found it essential to undermine the public’s respect for science and reason by attacking the integrity of the climate scientists. That is why the scientists are regularly accused of falsifying evidence and exaggerating its implications in a greedy effort to win more research grants, or secretly pursuing a hidden political agenda to expand the power of government. Such slanderous insults are deeply ironic: extremist ideologues – many financed or employed by carbon polluters – accusing scientists of being greedy extremist ideologies. [103] This is the reality we are facing today regarding the issues of Global Warming and Climate Change. We listen to the news and politicians to sharpen our knowledge about these issues.
In order to practically understand the issue of destruction of the environments, we ought to cultivate self-awareness for things that happen around us on a day-to-day basis. This directly relates to cultivating virtue as the virtue theory states. We ought to be aware of our actions and their subsequent results when we alter the natural environment. The only way to understand it is through practical wisdom, and according to the theory of virtue, as well as the teachings of Kongzi, we attain wisdom through knowledge. According to Thomas E. Hill, Jr, in his article, “Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments”, those who value the environment only for its utility must not really love the nature and so in this way fall short of an ideal. But such an answer is hardly satisfying in the present context, for what an issue is why we feel moral discomfort at the activities of those who admittedly value nature only for its utility [613]. I defend the view of Hill; we should not just value the environment for the benefits it provides us. Instead we should treat it as our lives depend on it, and without it, we will perish.
A virtuous person will recognize the threat of environmental pollution, global warming, and climate change, and would stand in support of preventing these human operations. Both Aristotle’s and Kongzi’s philosophies provide tools to guide us along in doing so. In reacting to the issues of global warming and climate change, we do not necessarily have to take stances of it saying we believe it, or we do not believe it’s happening. According to “The Analects”, of Kongzi (Confucius), Chapter 1, the master stated, do not be concerned that you lack an official position about something, but rather concern yourself with the means by which you might become established. Do not be concerned that no one has heard of you, but rather strive to become a person worthy of being known [12]. This is a wise statement that teaches us how to be self-educated in dealing with these issues.
In conclusion, I strongly think both philosophies of Aristotle and Kongzi (Confucius), has practical implications of addressing numerous issues in society we encounter today. The key feature about both philosophies is that they intersect in many ways that address the moral character of a human being with the primary goal of producing a virtuous human being that possess practical wisdom. Both philosophies have the tools to guide a person through whom he/she can develop the necessary virtues by practicing them to attain wisdom, and ultimately achieve eudaimonia, the human flourishing.